Tables at a glance

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

Table 4

Figures at a glance

Comments

Figure 1

Comments

Figure 2

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Figure 3

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Figure 4

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Figure 5

Table 1

	AFB1	AFB1	AFB1	AFB1	AFB1(0.5 mg/kg/day, orally for 7 days)+ Likopen (5 mg/kg/day, orally, 15 days)	AFB1 (1.5 mg/ kg/day, orally for 3 days )+Likopen (5 mg/kg) every other day, orally 15 days)	AFB1 (2.5 mg/ kg a single i.p)+Vit E (100 mg/kg/day, orally, 20 days)	AFB1 (1mg/kg/day, orally, 7days)+Propolis
	(0.5 mg/kg/	(1.5 mg/ kg/day, orally, 3 days )	(2.5 mg/ kg, a single, i.p.)	(1 mg/kg/day,orally, 7 days)				(100 mg/kg/day,orally, 10 days)
	day, orally, 7 days)
	Liver Heart, Kidney	Heart, Kidney	Liver Heart Kidney	Erythrocyte, Liver	Heart, Kidney	Heart, Kidney	Liver, Heart Kidney	Erythrocyte
								Liver
MDA	increase	increase	increase	increase	decrease	decrease	decrease	decrease
GSH	decrease	decrease	decrease	decrease	increase	heart unchanged	increase	increase
						kidney increase
CAT	decrease	decrease	decrease	decrease	liver increase heart increase kidney unchanged	heart increase	liver increase heart unchange kidney unchanged	increase
						kidney unchanged
GSH-Px	decrease	decrease	decrease		increase	increase	liver uncahnged heart increase kidney increase	increase
	heart unchanged liver decrease kidney decrease	heart decrease	decrease	liver increase	increase	heart increase kidney unchanged	increase	liver decrease
GST		kidney unchanged

SOD	decrease	decrease	decrease		liver increase heart, unchange kidney unchange	unchange	liver increase heart unchange kidney increase	increase

Table 1: The effects of lycopene, Vitamin E and propolis in experimental studies using AFB1 at different concentrations. Data Sources in the Table [7,13,17,18]

Table 2

Species	LD50 (mg/kg)
Rabbit	0.3-0.5
Cat	0.55
Dog	1
Sheep	2
Calf	1.5
Guinea pig	1.4-2
Chicken (21days)	18
Turkey (15 days)	3.2
Ducklings (cubs)	0.3-0.6
Rat Newborn Rat Weaned Rat	9 1.5 7.3
Male Monkey Macaque, Female	2.2 8
Pig	0.62

Table 2: AFB1 LD50 values by species

Table 3

Type of Test	Cell Line	Results	Reference
CCK-8	BME	Aflatoxins AFB1 and AFM1 exhibited cytotoxic properties in a dose- and time-dependent manner at various concentrations after 24 and 48 h of incubation. They also induced apoptosis and increased the ratio of cells in the G1 and G2 phases.	(66)
MTT, LDH release	Caco-2, Hep-G2, SK-N-SH	Both aflatoxins AFB1 and AFM1 decreased the viability of cells by damaging the cell membrane.	(67)
MTT	Caco-2	Aflatoxin AFM1 inhibited cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner after 24, 48 and 72 h of incubation.	(68)
MTT, LDH release	BRL 3A	AFB1 reduced cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner. AFB1 also increased LDH activity, apoptotic cell ratio and ROS production.	(69)
MTT, NRU	Caco-2, Raw264.7, MDBK	AFB1 exhibited cytotoxic properties against MDBK, reducing cell viability by 21% after 48 h of incubation with AFB1 at a concentration of 3.8 µg/mL. No significant decrease in cell viability was observed in Raw264.7 and Caco-2 cell lines.	(70)
Cell Proliferation Reagent WST-1	BME-UV1	Aflatoxin B1 is cytotoxic against the BME-UV1 cell line in a doseand time-dependent manner, with LC50 values of 687 and 180 nM after 24 and 48 h, respectively.	(71)
MTT, NRU	BME-UV1	Aflatoxin caused a decrease in cell viability in a dose- and timedependent manner. NRU tests showed that after 72 h of incubation, cell viability was decreased by more than 70% in all concentrations tested. The MTT test also showed a significant decrease in cell viability in all concentrations tested after 24 h of incubation.	(72)
MTT	Caco-2	Aflatoxin B1 and M1 exhibited cytotoxic properties against the Caco-2 cell line. The MTT assay showed a significant dose- and time-dependent decrease in cell viability, both differentiated and undifferentiated cells, when treated with mycotoxins. It was shown that aflatoxin B1 is more cytotoxic than aflatoxin M1.	(73)
MTT, LDH release	PK-15	Aflatoxin B1 exhibited dose- and time-dependent cytotoxic properties. The MTT test showed that after 48 h of incubation, the IC50 for aflatoxin B1 was 38.8 µM. Regarding the LDH release, an AFB1 in concentration of 24.9 µM caused an increase in LDH release by 30% after 24 h of incubation.	(74)
Cell Proliferation ELISA BrdU Kit, Flow cytometry	MAC-T	Incubation with AFB1 significantly decreased cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Since the ratio of cells in sub-G1, S and G2/M phases was elevated, it was assumed that AFB1 inhibited cell proliferation by inhibiting the cell cycle. Flow cytometry also showed that incubation with AFB1 induced apoptosis in MAC-T cells.	(75)
High content screening	BF-2	AFB1 reduced cell viability in a dose-dependent manner, with IC50 estimated at 11.11 µM. Moreover, AFB1 generated strong oxidative stress.	(76)
Cell Proliferation Reagent WST-1	HepG-2, BEAS-2B	AFB1 decreased HepG-2 cell viability, with a IC50 estimated at 1 µM; however, after exposure of BEAS-2B cells to AFB1, cell viability was at 90% compared to the control group in all tested concentrations.	(77)

Table 3: Cytotoxicity of aflatoxins tested on different cell lines

Table 4

Mycotoxin

Food crop

Established levels (mg/kg)

Aflatoxins

Codex Alimentarius standard

Almonds, Brazil nuts, hazelnuts, peanuts, pistachios for processing
Almonds, Brazil nuts, hazelnuts, pistachios for direct human consumption

AFB1
-
-

Total
15
10

Aflatoxins

European Union maximum and guidance levels

Groundnuts (peanuts), hazelnut, Brazil nuts, other oilseeds for processing
Almonds, pistachios, apricot kernels for processing
Tree nuts, other than the tree nuts above for processing
Groundnuts (peanuts), other oilseeds, other three nuts below for direct human consumption
Almonds, pistachios, apricot kernels for direct human consumption
Hazelnuts and Brazil nuts for direct human consumption
All cereals except maize and rice
Maize and rice for processing

AFB1

8
12
5
2
8
5
2
5

Total

15
15
10
4
10
10
4
10

Aflatoxin B1

USA: Action and guidance levels

All food crops

20

Aflatoxins

Canada: Maximum and guidance levels

Nuts

15

Aflatoxins

Australia: Maximum levels

Peanuts, tree nuts

15

Aflatoxin B1

Japan: Maximum and provisional maximum levels

All food crops

10

Aflatoxin B1

China: Maximum and guidance levels

Maize
Rice (brown rice)
Wheat, barley, other cereals
Peanuts

10
10
5
20

Table 4: Maximum levels for most often regulated mycotoxins in food crops

FIGURE 1

Figure 1: Chemical structure of AF�s (3)

FIGURE 2

Figure 2: Schematic representation of AFB1's relationship with ROS and the occurrence of cancer [36]

FIGURE 3

Figure 3: Effects of AFB1. AFB1 reacts with DNA, RNA, proteins and other compounds to form adducts. These AFB1 adducts cause many genetic mutations and epigenetic alterations leading to the deregulation of many cellular metabolic pathways affecting the growth and normal functioning of cells [63]

FIGURE 4

Figure 4: AFB1 biotransformation pathways [64]

FIGURE 5

Figure 5: Full Body Skin and Eye Exam.