
Figure 1: Study design; Randomized and screening of subjects (A). Study protocol (B)
Group |
N |
5:00 p.m. |
8:00 p.m. |
F |
28 |
FGR |
Dinner |
G |
28 |
Glucose |
Dinner |
N |
28 |
- |
Dinner |
A |
28 |
- |
Dinner + FGR |
Table 1: Test schedule
Nutrients |
FGR |
Glucose |
Volume (g) |
26 |
34 |
Energy (kcal) |
114 |
114 |
Protein (g) |
2.1 |
0.0 |
Fat (g) |
3.9 |
0.0 |
Total Carbohydrates (g) |
18.9 |
28.5 |
-Sugar (g) |
16.2 |
28.5 |
-Dietary fiber (g) |
2.7 |
0.0 |
Table 2: Nutrition information for snacks
Dinner Contents |
Hamburger steak |
Simmered mackerel with miso |
Hamburger steak in cheese |
Fried chicken |
Reference: Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese (/day) |
Rice, Hamburger steak, tomato sauce, omelets, mashed potatoes, spinach and corn soy, broccoli |
Rice, simmered mackerel with miso, stewed daikon radish, simmered hijiki, Japanese pumpkin, Japanese green pea and eggs, Japanese spinach with sesame seeds, and simmered taro |
Rice, hamburger steak in cheese, broccoli, spinach and bacon sooty, potato salad, branches and egg sweeteners, vegetables and tomato sauce |
Rice, fried chicken, broccoli, konnyaku and ninjin no kinpira, okra and corn salads, chinese cabbage and shiitake bean paste, spinach ohitashi, and vegetables cooked together |
||
Energy (kcal) |
559 |
568 |
574 |
551 |
2000 |
Protein (%Energy) |
13.1 |
12.5 |
13.5 |
12.6 |
13–20 |
Fat (%Energy) |
22.1 |
25.7 |
26.2 |
24.5 |
20–30 |
Total Carbohydrate (%Energy) |
63.8 |
60.8 |
59.3 |
61.9 |
50–65 |
- Sugar (g) |
87.5 |
83.6 |
82.6 |
83.6 |
- |
- Dietary fiber (g) |
3.4 |
5.3 |
4.6 |
3.4 |
18 > |
Sodium (mg) |
673 |
646 |
741 |
682 |
2559 |
Potassium (mg) |
542 |
422 |
524 |
407 |
2000 |
Calcium (mg) |
218 |
87 |
268 |
73 |
650 |
Phosphorus (mg) |
183 |
177 |
203 |
163 |
800 |
Iron (mg) |
1.9 |
1.6 |
1.8 |
1.1 |
6.5 |
Table 3: Nutrition information for dinner
Pattern |
N |
Day 1 |
Day 2 |
Day 3 |
Day 4 |
Aa |
4 |
Glucose |
FGR |
Non snack |
Dinner + FGR |
Ab |
2 |
Glucose |
FGR |
Non snack |
Dinner + FGR |
Ac |
1 |
Glucose |
FGR |
Non snack |
Dinner + FGR |
Ad |
2 |
Glucose |
FGR |
Non snack |
Dinner + FGR |
Ba |
3 |
FGR |
Glucose |
Dinner + FGR |
Non snack |
Bb |
1 |
FGR |
Glucose |
Dinner + FGR |
Non snack |
Bc |
1 |
FGR |
Glucose |
Dinner + FGR |
Non snack |
Bd |
2 |
FGR |
Glucose |
Dinner + FGR |
Non snack |
Ca |
1 |
Non snack |
Dinner + FGR |
Glucose |
FGR |
Cb |
2 |
Non snack |
Dinner + FGR |
Glucose |
FGR |
Cc |
4 |
Non snack |
Dinner + FGR |
Glucose |
FGR |
Cd |
2 |
Non snack |
Dinner + FGR |
Glucose |
FGR |
Da |
1 |
Dinner + FGR |
Non snack |
FGR |
Glucose |
Db |
3 |
Dinner + FGR |
Non snack |
FGR |
Glucose |
Dc |
3 |
Dinner + FGR |
Non snack |
FGR |
Glucose |
Dd |
1 |
Dinner + FGR |
Non snack |
FGR |
Glucose |
Table 1: Randomized of test schedule and dinner contents
Time |
F |
G |
N |
A |
5:00 p.m. |
85.3 ± 10.5 |
90.6 ± 12.4 |
81.0 ± 9.8 |
82.5 ± 8.1 |
5:15 |
87.9 ± 9.0 |
99.3 ± 16.5 |
80.6 ± 9.8 |
81.1 ± 8.8 |
5:30 |
91.4 ± 12.5 |
109.3 ± 22.7** |
80.4 ± 9.6** |
80.3 ± 9.1** |
5:45 |
91.8 ± 15.1 |
109.7 ± 23.4*** |
80.3 ± 9.6** |
80.0 ± 9.8** |
6:00 |
87.5 ± 12.9 |
101.6 ± 22.4*** |
79.6 ± 9.5** |
79.8 ± 9.9** |
6:15 |
83.4 ± 11.7 |
92.3 ± 20.9** |
79.1 ± 9.3** |
79.5 ± 8.5** |
6:30 |
82.7 ± 14.9 |
86.2 ± 19.9* |
78.8 ± 8.8 |
79.1 ± 8.7 |
6:45 |
82.2 ± 15.2 |
82.7 ± 15.7 |
78.1 ± 8.1 |
78.3 ± 9.3 |
7:00 |
80.5 ± 12.4 |
80.2 ± 13.7 |
77.6 ± 8.5 |
77.6 ± 9.2 |
7:15 |
80.3 ± 12.6 |
78.6 ± 13.7 |
77.5 ± 8.5 |
77.8 ± 9.7 |
7:30 |
79.5 ± 12.8 |
77.1 ± 11.4 |
78.4 ± 8.5 |
79.0 ± 10.2 |
7:45 |
76.7 ± 10.7 |
74.6 ± 10.4 |
77.9 ± 9.3 |
77.4 ± 9.5 |
8:00 |
78.9 ± 10.0 |
73.7 ± 10.2*** |
77.1 ± 9.5 |
78.0 ± 9.3 |
8:15 |
93.2 ± 13.0 |
86.5 ± 12.8 |
89.3 ± 13.2 |
92.0 ± 13.6 |
8:30 |
111.8 ± 17.5 |
112.4 ± 19.7 |
112.6 ± 18.2 |
117.5 ± 23.2 |
8:45 |
117.6 ± 20.0 |
125.3 ± 24.8* |
124.6 ± 22.2 |
131.5 ± 31.2* |
9:00 |
112.1 ± 21.2 |
118.6 ± 23.6 |
122.5 ± 26.9 |
129.8 ± 31.5** |
9:15 |
107.2 ± 19.6 |
108.2 ± 22.6 |
117.1 ± 26.7* |
123.7 ± 29.0** |
9:30 |
105.6 ± 18.1 |
105.0 ± 22.0 |
114.1 ± 26.6* |
118.2 ± 25.9* |
9:45 |
107.2 ± 19.2 |
104.7 ± 19.5 |
111.7 ± 27.4 |
116.4 ± 20.8* |
10:00 |
108.8 ± 19.8 |
103.5 ± 17.9 |
107.8 ± 27.0 |
112.8 ± 20.0 |
10:15 |
105.6 ± 17.0 |
102.7 ± 18.1 |
102.7 ± 25.6 |
107.4 ± 19.7 |
10:30 |
100.3 ± 16.0 |
102.5 ± 17.2 |
98.6 ± 22.6 |
102.0 ± 20.5 |
10:45 |
96.8 ± 17.5 |
100.7 ± 17.5 |
97.6 ± 18.9 |
99.4 ± 19.3 |
11:00 |
94.8 ± 17.8 |
97.1 ± 15.7 |
96.5 ± 15.5 |
97.4 ± 16.7 |
11:15 |
92.3 ± 17.6 |
93.0 ± 14.1 |
94.0 ± 14.5 |
95.0 ± 15.1 |
11:30 |
91.0 ± 16.3 |
91.1 ± 15.0 |
91.0 ± 14.4 |
93.9 ± 15.0 |
11:45 |
89.5 ± 15.7 |
90.3 ± 15.7 |
88.2 ± 14.1 |
93.1 ± 15.4 |
12:00 a.m. |
86.9 ± 16.1 |
87.9 ± 13.9 |
86.5 ± 14.4 |
91.9 ± 14.8 |
12:15 |
85.1 ± 15.4 |
84.8 ± 12.7 |
85.7 ± 14.1 |
89.9 ± 14.2 |
12:30 |
83.5 ± 14.7 |
82.3 ± 12.7 |
84.7 ± 13.8 |
87.5 ± 13.0 |
12:45 |
81.7 ± 14.0 |
81.6 ± 12.4 |
83.2 ± 13.9 |
85.6 ± 11.8 |
1:00 |
79.6 ± 13.0 |
80.5 ± 11.6 |
81.7 ± 13.8 |
84.4 ± 11.4 |
1:15 |
78.0 ± 12.7 |
79.3 ± 11.4 |
80.5 ± 12.4 |
82.3 ± 10.9 |
1:30 |
77.1 ± 12.1 |
78.3 ± 11.7 |
78.6 ± 11.7 |
80.4 ± 9.8 |
1:45 |
76.3 ± 11.8 |
77.4 ± 11.5 |
76.6 ± 12.0 |
79.7 ± 10.1 |
2:00 |
75.4 ± 11.9 |
76.9 ± 11.4 |
75.0 ± 11.9 |
79.0 ± 9.7 |
2:15 |
75.1 ± 11.9 |
76.4 ± 10.7 |
74.2 ± 12.0 |
77.8 ± 9.4 |
2:30 |
75.0 ± 11.7 |
75.3 ± 9.6 |
74.9 ± 14.8 |
76.1 ± 9.4 |
2:45 |
74.6 ± 10.9 |
74.6 ± 8.9 |
74.5 ± 12.7 |
75.1 ± 10.1 |
3:00 |
73.9 ± 10.3 |
74.4 ± 9.6 |
73.4 ± 11.4 |
74.4 ± 10.4 |
Table 2: Glucose level
|
Analysis |
F |
G |
N |
A |
F value |
P value |
Snack |
Maximal BG (mg/dL) |
26.5 ± 10.1 |
47.3 ± 14.4*** |
4.3 ± 2.7*** |
4.3 ± 3.0*** |
F (1.862, 50.27) = 197.4 |
p < 0.001 |
AUC (min*mg/dL) |
11526 ± 1616 |
12781 ± 1742** |
9952 ± 1115*** |
9555 ± 923*** |
F (2.202, 59.46) = 67.1 |
p < 0.001 |
|
IAUC (min*mg/dL) |
1136 ± 507 |
2263 ± 893*** |
138 ± 122*** |
142 ± 143*** |
F (1.585, 42.79) = 132.6 |
p < 0.001 |
|
Dinner |
Maximal BG (mg/dL) |
48.6 ± 16.2 |
58.5 ± 15.4** |
58.4 ± 21.4* |
65.4 ± 20.4*** |
F (2.804, 75.72) = 9.68 |
p < 0.001 |
AUC (min*mg/dL) |
27352 ± 6770 |
29277 ± 4223* |
29730 ± 5053 |
31162 ± 5654*** |
F (2.092, 56.47) = 9.16 |
p < 0.001 |
|
IAUC (min*mg/dL) |
6415 ± 2242 |
7795 ± 2712** |
7068 ± 2934 |
8977 ± 3645** |
F (2.130, 57.52) = 7.89 |
p < 0.001 |
Table 3: Values of glucose response
Values are means ± standard deviation. AUC; area under the curve. One way-repeated-ANOVA was used for maximal glucose, AUC of glucose levels and Dunnet's was used for multiple testing vs F group, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. F, fruit granola snacks; G, glucose snacks; N, no snack; A, fruit granola added to dinner (no snack)
Analysis |
F |
G |
N |
A |
F value |
P value |
Hunger until dinner |
2.4 ± 0.7 |
3.4 ± 1.0* |
3.9 ± 0.9*** |
3.8 ± 1.0*** |
F = 34.67 |
p < 0.001 |
Concentration until dinner |
3.7 ± 0.7 |
2.8 ± 0.7* |
2.4 ± 0.7*** |
2.5 ± 0.5** |
F = 22.66 |
p < 0.001 |
Goodness of subjective sleep |
3.8 ± 0.7 |
3.5 ± 0.7 |
3.5 ± 0.8 |
3.0 ± 0.5*** |
F = 18.43 |
p < 0.001 |
Subjective depth sleep |
3.9 ± 0.7 |
3.3 ± 0.9 |
3.0 ± 0.9* |
3.1 ± 0.7 |
F = 14.07 |
p < 0.01 |
Good subjective awakening |
3.6 ± 0.6 |
3.2 ± 0.9 |
2.8 ± 0.5** |
2.6 ± 0.8** |
F = 21.37 |
p < 0.001 |
Table 4: Values of questionnaire survey
Values are means ± standard deviation. The questionnaire-based survey used Friedman ranking, and Dunn was used for multiple testing vs F group, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. F, fruit granola snacks; G, glucose snacks; N, no snack; A, fruit granola added to dinner (no snack)
Analysis |
F |
G |
N |
A |
F value |
P value |
Waking (%) |
12.2 ± 3.7 |
12.0 ± 2.4 |
13.2 ± 3.3 |
13.8 ± 4.6 |
F (2.589, 49.19) = 1.53 |
p = 0.22 |
REM-sleep (%) |
19.5 ± 7.6 |
20.9 ± 5.9 |
20.3 ± 6.2 |
19.7 ± 6.7 |
F (2.472, 46.97) = 0.37 |
p = 0.75 |
Non-REM sleep (light) (%) |
59.7 ± 8.6 |
60.1 ± 9.3 |
61.0 ± 10.4 |
59.4 ± 11.6 |
F (2.126, 40.39) = 0.17 |
p = 0.86 |
Non-REM sleeping (deep) (%) |
17.0 ± 5.6 |
16.1 ± 4.9 |
14.8 ± 8.1 |
16.7 ± 9.3 |
F (2.382,45.25) = 0.53 |
p = 0.63 |
Number of awakenings |
1.6 ± 1.2 |
2.8 ± 2.1 |
3.0 ± 1.8* |
3.2 ± 2.5* |
F (2.393, 45.47) = 3.26 |
p < 0.05 |
Table 5: Values of sleep quality
REM; rapid eye movement. Values are means ± standard deviation. One way-repeated-ANOVA was used for sleep quality and Dunnet's was used for multiple testing vs F group, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. F, fruit granola snacks; G, glucose snacks; N, no snack; A, fruit granola added to dinner (no snack)
Tables at a glance
Figures at a glance